More diffuse effects of ‘Print'

ˇ  it encouraged and made possible on a large scale the quantification of knowledge.

•  iconographic figures

•  the desire to legislate for correctness in language → dictionaries

•  reinforce the sense of language as essential textual

•  develop the personal privacy that marks modern society: solo reading → silent reading

•  create a new sense of the private ownership

Print and Closure: Intertextuality

ˇ  enclose thoughts in thousands of copies of a work of exactly the same visual and physical consistency.

ˇ  represent the words of an author in definitive or ‘final' form, however, manuscript culture thinks

•  manuscripts are closer to the give-and-take of oral expression

•  the readers of manuscripts are less absent

•  verbal art to be more in touch with oral plenum

Post-typography: Electronics

　“The electronic transformation of verbal expression has both deepened the commitment of the word…… has brought consciousness to a new age of secondary orality” (p 133)

ˇ  electronic devices are not eliminating printed books but are producing more of them

ˇ  composition on computer terminals is replacing older forms of typographic compositions

ˇ  mass media such as telephone, radio, television has brought us into the age of the so-called ‘secondary orality'

ˇ  the relationship of primary and secondary orality

•  secondary orality generates a sense for group: McLuhan's ‘global villiage'

•  people in the age of secondary orality are groupminded self-consciously

•  the sameness: spontaneity

•  time cannot turn back: a presidential debate on TV → the audience is absent, invisible and inaudible

〔會議紀錄〕

•  more diffuse effects of “Print”

（ p128 ）印刷增加書籍推廣

1.  iconographic figures ：例如 William Blake 的 “songs of innocence” 那樣把文字放在圖片裡一種意象化的過程

2.  字典的產生∼∼要求正確性，但同時也是一種規範，語言的規範。

3.  reinforce the sense of language as essential textual

4.  強化了個人的獨立性（ personal privacy ），音樂閱讀（ sole reading ）是個極為個人化的行為。

5.  大家對文字的掌控是有所有權的。在口說的時代，比較沒有「所有權」這樣的觀念，在口說變成文字之後，才會有「智慧財產權」嘛。歌謠、模式、主題過去是可以 share 的，現在不行了， plagiarism 這個問題才浮現的。 ‘plagiaiarius' 的字元意思在現在非常負面。

•  print and closure: intertextuality

1.  consistency

2.  manuscript ：手抄本的東西可能每一本都會有差異，其支持者認為「手抄本是更接近口語文化的（ give and take ）」、「觀眾比較不那麼疏離（ absent ）」、「語法上（ verbal art ）」例如莎士比亞劇中的詩。

•  post-trpography: electronics

1.  “The electronic transformation of verbal expression has both deepened the commitment of the word…… has brought consciousness to a new age of secondary orality.” 第二次口說時期 (secondary orality) ，而 ‘secondary' 這個字除了第二以外，尚有「間接的、次要的」等意涵

2.  the relationship of primary and secondary orality ：已經不可能回到 primary orality ，就連過去聚眾聆聽的政治辯論會，如今也發展為透過電視專播的形式，所以我們看到的都是媒體決定要告訴我們的事情。魯漢也曾經談過媒體操作的情況，有的時候眼見不見得為憑（ seeing is not always believing ）。

3.  在媒體轉移的過程裡，人類的情感因素也該列入考量之內，由於我們對若干物件皆會有感情，所以會可以的保留它，例如電視的出現並沒有讓廣播消失，電子書也沒有取代紙本書的地位。

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